Theme of outsiders Essay Example for Free

Theme of outsiders Essay Probably the first indication of the theme of outsiders is the arrival of heathcliff to Wuthering heights as a child. Old Mr. Earnshaw returns to his family from a trip to Liverpool with the child as a gift from god but the more liked observation is the childrens remark of him as a gipsy brat and a dirty ragged black-haired child. Catherine and Hindley immediately dislike the outsider mainly because the presents which their father had promised had been either crushed or lost on the way home . Mrs. earshaw too is appalled at the idea of having to feed him and clothe him as well. He is considered an outsider more than any other character in the novel because, well because he is! , metaphorically and literally. He is then reduced to the status of a servant or in other words he has been turned into a pariah-an outcast, when Earnshaw died and passed Wuthering heights to Hindley. He drove him from their company to the servants, depriving him of the instructions of the curate, and insisted that he should labour out of doors instead. When heathcliff and Cathy were caught at Thrushcross Grange , laughing at the lintons they were both considered social outsiders to Thrushcross Grange, even though Cathy isnt, they two together were because they were foreigners. The residents launched a bull dog at the pair which is the ultimate sign of unwelcomeness and inhospitability. Heathcliff was accused of being a theif almost instantaneously for the way he looks, which was an out-and-outer. The role of the outsider should not be overlooked because the setting of Wuthering Heights is one of complete isolation. The moors connecting Wuthering Heights and Thrushcross Grange serve a double purpose linking the two households while still separating them from the village and all others. This isolated setting is important for Brontes combination of realism and gothic symbolism. Living beyond the bounds of society means that the outsider, whoever it may be is seen as a suspicious and threatening entity, someone who has to be excluded or isolated for the good of the society at . this is an example of how the outsider has now become the enemy and a threat to society and yet still occupies a position of vulnerability. Isolation is a concept of utter importance in all gothic novels and is closely linked to the idea of the outsider. This is very easy to see in novels such as Dracula with the secluded castle on the mountain tops or Frankenstein in the far end of the arctic. And so Bronte is actually forced to use this symbolism and create a desolate world for her characters . This is also an indication of how Bronte was brought up, in Emilys whole life the only places she favoured to go to were her the moors and her home, Emilys isolation and unsociability also affected her story. The setting of the novel is only limited to two dwellings Wuthering heights and Thrushcross grange and moors around them and the only nearby village is gimmerton which is rather far from both dwellings. Lockwoods first impression of the place is in all England, I do not believe that I could have fixed on a situation so completely removed from the stir of society this indicates the extent to which Wuthering heights stands alone and isolated this is somewhat symbolic for it distances the cruel, barbarous and bizarrely excessive events from everyday life. It also shows the helplessness of the victims of these events and their defenselessness since it is very difficult to get help. One of the most outspoken and clearly proving-its-existence quotes is we dont in general take to foreigners here, Mr. Lockwood, unless they take to us first this shows that outsiders are definitely unwelcomed guests and are only to be approved of after they can be trusted and even after they have been taken into guardianship (for example young Heathcliff, Hareton and Linton) they can still be prejudiced and treated infernally. The second example of an outsider in Wuthering heights (after Heathcliff) is of course Isabella linton she has been taken out of her home at thrushcross grange and moved to the outsider status in Wuthering heights she writes (to nelly dean) youll not be surprised ,Ellen, at my feeling particularly cheerless, seated in worse than solitude, on that inhospitable hearth . Isabella also becomes an outsider to her own brother, Edgar as soon as she elopes with Heathcliff and bears his child. She is left homeless since the residents of her new home treat her as an unwelcomed guest and her brother wont take to her either Hereafter she is only my sister in name; not because I disown her, but because she has disowned me. . This can be seen from another point of view, Isabella has become an outsider simpy because she has married one. The third and final example is of course, Hareton linton he has been born into a house lacking of love or any feeling to nurture him into growing up into a healthy young man, but he is then introduced to Catherine who rather tames him in a way and bringing his illiterate, ignorant self to an end. He is turned into an outsider ever since he was taken under Heathcliffs care, or in this case lack of it. Heathcliff degrades hareton and puts him into the same treatment he has been through (which led him to become an outsider in the past). Hareton lacked education and gentleness and in one instance Heathcliff had to remind him how to act when catherine first visited Dont use any bad words; and dont stare, when the young lady is not looking at you, and be ready to turn your face when she is. The theme of outsiders is also existant in the color purple in many characters. First and foremost Celie she is an outsider in every aspect. When she is at home with her pa being raped and enslaved into working hard and still keeping quite and not fight back whatever happens to her. She is also an outsider to her own self she does not know who she is (I am) and does not understand her body, she becomes an outsider to her 2 children and does not get to know them and hence they become outsiders. Mr____ tries to define her being you black, you pore, you ugly, you a woman. Goddam, you nothing at all but fails since his description is merely superficial but still has a big affect on celies development. Another social outsider in the color purple is of course Shug Avery, in the beginning of the novel she was discriminated against for being well, a slut, hussy, heifer and street cleaner of course people did not consider that as a life choice because of the platitude people at that time had for the role of women especially black women. When Shug Avery became sick nobody in this town wants to take the Queen Honeybee in. Everyone is afraid of her because they believe that Shug has the nasty woman disease. The olinka people are made to be outsiders to the whites that own the land, but have very different lifestyle which cause them to be unwanted. Tashi did not want to marry Adam because she feared she would be discriminated against in America because of the different way she looks and because she is an outsider again both metaphorically and literally.

Preventing Musculoskeletal Disorders in Nurses

Preventing Musculoskeletal Disorders in Nurses Appendices APPENDIX C SECTION 1: ERGONOMIC FOR PREVENTION OF MUSCULOSKELETAL DISORDER Introduction Nurses provide care to physically demanding patient and assist them in mobilization and other activities like bath, feeding etc. Patient handling tasks such as lifting, transferring or repositioning are contributing factors for MSP among nurses particularly the back being most prevalent. These tasks can entail high physical strains due to different body size involved, leaning over a bed or working in cramped postures, supporting patient during gait activities, and many other factors. The risk factors that health care workers face include: Force: the amount of physical effort required to lift or to maintain control of heavy equipment or tools; Repetition: performing same task over and over continually or frequently; and Awkward postures assuming positions that put strain on the body, such as working above shoulder height, kneeling, squatting, leaning over a bed, or twisting the back while lifting. Identifying Problems and Implementing Solutions for patient Lifting and Repositioning Manual handling tasks such as lifting and repositioning can be variable, dynamic, and unpredictable in nature. In addition, factors such as patient self-esteem, safety, and medical contraindications should be taken into consideration. The analysis of any handling task involves an assessment of the requirements and capacities of the patient. The patient assessment should include an analysis of the following factors: The level of cooperation from the patient; The body size and weight of the patient; Any health anomalies that may influence the choice of lifting or repositioning techniques. Repositioning in Chair Description: Variable position Geri chairs When to Use: Repositioning partial- or non-weight-bearing patients who are cooperative. Points to Remember: One caregiver can assist if patient has strength in both upper extremities of arms. If patient cannot assist in self-repositioning on chair, help from at least 2 caregivers and friction reducing device may be required. Ensure that chair is easily adjustable; wheels are freely movable flexible and steer. Lock wheels on chair before repositioning. Remove trays, footrests, and seat belts where appropriate. Ensure device correspond with patient weight. Various Activities of Daily Living and Bedside Assistance Description: Work practices for feeding, dressing and grooming. When to Use: During feeding, dressing, personal hygiene tasks, vital sign assessment, and other bedside assistance. Bedside Assistance: Lower side rails, position patient as close as possible to edge for safety purposes. Sit or stand in front and near to side of patient. Adjust height of tables and electric beds to waist level and place supplies close by to prevent back flexion and bending. Collect supplies in advance and place them on a table that is located perpendicular to the patient. Avoid leaning across patient; rather, move to other side. Carry items close to the body. Provide adaptive equipment that offer independence to patients and reduce assistance from caregiver. Feeding: Chop food into pieces before placing it in front of patient. Dressing and grooming: Ensure that patients feet lie flat on the ground or a stool for stability when sitting. Place feebler limb in pant or sleeve first. Use suitable adaptive equipment for dressing, grooming and oral hygiene. Activities of Daily Living Activity: Administrating medications Description: Low profile medication cart and cartridge pill dispenser When to Use: Dispensing medications. The cart increases precision and lessens time required to perform task. Medications cart: Classify medications according to day and time. Low profile carts with easy side opening drawer are recommended to accommodate hand height of shorter nurses. Cartridge dispenser: Use cartridges with a â€Å"flip top† for drug storage until administered rather than wrapping the doses individually in foil of paper or small container that require more finger forces and a sharp object to break the seal. Bathtub, Shower, and Toileting activities Description: Long-handled extension tools on hand-held showerheads wash or scrub brushes. When to Use: When bathing or showering patients. Points to Remember: These equipments limit the extent of bending, reaching, and twisting required when cleaning feet, legs, and trunk of patients. Patients who are autonomous can also use these devices to facilitate personal hygiene care. Guiding and Slowing Falls Description: Method for guiding and slowing falls. When to Use: When patient is falling. Points to Remember: Utilization of transfer or gait belts may aid nurses in guiding the fall. Grip onto the belt/handles and slowly lower the patient to the floor using proper body mechanics. Reviewing patient assessments and monitoring for signs of weakness are effective strategies of preventing falls. Stand with back straight, tighten stomach muscles, bend legs, and stay adjacent to patient if it practical to do so. Don’t try to stop the fall abruptly as this may increase the risk of injury among nurses. Lifting from the Floor Description: Methods to lift patients from floor When to Use: After a patient fall. Points to Remember: Assess patient for injury prior to lifting and use a powered portable or ceiling-mounted lift device to move patient with minimal assistance. If patient can maintain standing position with minimal assistance, use gait or transfer belt with handles to support patient. If manual assistance is required ensure a team lift are s are available to provide assistance as needed. Use 2 or more caregivers when assisting heavy patients. Stand with back straight, bend legs, and stay near to patient as possible. Ambulation Description: Ambulation assist device When to Use: For patients, who are able to support their body weight, cooperative, need extra security and assistance when ambulating. Increases patient safety and reduces risk of falls during ambulation Points to Remember: Typically needs one caregiver. The device provides assistance to patients as they walk and pushes it along during ambulation. Ensure device is in good working condition with height adjusted correctly before use and rated for the load weight to be lifted. Apply brakes before positioning patient in or releasing patient from device. Implementing solutions for patient lifting and repositioning Ergonomics is the science of designing equipment and work tasks to conform to the capability of the worker and provides a means of adaptation to work environment and work practices to prevent injuries. Ergonomic solutions are proposed to reduce musculoskeletal disorders among the staff nurses. The recommended solutions brought forward are not intended to be an exhaustive list, nor do all of them will be used in any given set up. The material signifies a variety of options available that a facility can consider using. Many of the solutions are simple to implement and do not require substantial time or resources such as modification in procedures or equipment. Others may require more significant efforts. The integration of various solutions into hospital management, can lead to beneficial outcome in the long run. Patient and Equipment handling solutions Lateral Transfer Description: Ceiling-mounted device with horizontal frame system or litter When to Use: Moving patients who are totally helpless, non-weight bearing, has other physical impairment, or are very big in size and cannot be safely shifted by staff between 2 horizontal surfaces, such as from bed to stretcher or gurney in supine position. Points to Remember: Motors can be fixed or portable (lightweight). Device can be functioned by hand-held control attached to unit or by infrared remote control. Always ensure lifting device is in good working condition before use and is assessed for the load weight to be lifted. Lateral Transfer Description: Gurneys with transfer devices When to Use: Transferring a partial- or non-weight-bearing patient between 2 horizontal sides, such as from bed to stretcher or gurney in supine position. Points to Remember: Two nurses are required to achieve this type of transfer. Additional assistance may be required depending on patient status, e.g., for heavier or uncooperative patients. Motorized height-adjustable gurneys with built-in slide boards are preferred to those adjusted by crank mechanism to lessen physical effort required by caregiver. Always ensure that lifting device is in good working condition before use and is evaluated for the load weight to be shifted. Ensure wheels on equipment are locked and transfer surfaces are same level to at waist level of caregivers in order to avoid over reached and back flexion Lateral Transfer; Repositioning Description: Air-assist lateral sliding aid; flexible mattress inflated by portable air supply When to Use: Transporting a partial- or non-weight bearing resident between two horizontal sides such as from bed to stretcher or gurney in supine position. It can also be used for repositioning a patient in bed, increase patient well-being and reduces risk of tissue injury during transfer. Points to Remember: Two caregivers are needed to achieve this type of transfer. Additional assistance may be required depending on patient ability, e.g., for heavier or uncooperative patients. Ensure wheels on equipment are locked and transfer surfaces are at level and height that permits nurses to work at waist level to avoid over reach and back flexion. Count down and coordinate the transfer motion between caregivers. Patient Lifting Description: Ceiling-mounted lift device When to Use: Lifting patients who are totally helpless, are partial- or non-weight bearing, very heavy, or have other physical impairment. Transfers from bed to chair (wheel chair, Geri or cardiac chair), chair or floor to bed, or for bathing and toileting. Points to Remember: May need 2 or more nurses. Some patients can use the device quicker than portable device without assistance. Motors can be fixed or portable (lightweight). Device can be activated by hand-held control attached to unit or by infrared remote control. Ensure lifting device is in good working condition before use and is assessed for the load weight to be lifted. Transfer from Sitting to Standing Position Description: Stand-assist devices; can be fixed to bed or chair or be free-standing When to Use: Transferring patients who are able to support their weight and cooperative and can pull themselves up from sitting to standing position. It can be used for independent patients who need extra lift to stand and aid patient independence. Points to Remember: Check that device is constant before use and is evaluated for patient weight to be held. Ensure frame is firmly attached to bed, or if depend on mattress support that mattress is big enough to support the frame. 1

Gcse Arab Israeli Conflict Que :: essays research papers

1. Looking at where this source came from, (a history book), my primary opinion would be that the author should place no blame at all on either parties detailed in his writings. The purpose of a history book is not to put forward the opinions of the writer, but to display the facts and events of the time period in question. However, as is most common nowadays, books such as these can be used by governments as propaganda, and for all I know the author could be extremely biased. Then, the date should give a further clue before any of the material in question has even been read. Although written nine years after the Six Day War of June 1967, this extract can hardly be deemed to have been written in ‘hind sight’, as the hostility between the Arabs and Israelis was still present at the time of its publication. If the author was someone who was not totally impartial, perhaps they had relatives on one of the opposing factions or were themselves members, then in such a time of heated emotions, ones anger might begin to affect the impartiality of your writing, whether deliberate or subconsciously. Upon reading the article, you notice that it is very fairly set out into two sections, the Israelis reasons for going to war, and the Arabs. You are told in the first paragraph that â€Å"the Arab powers were threatening her (Israel) with destruction and were ready to attack her† as well as â€Å"Egypt had already closed the Gulf of Akaba which she knew Israel would regard as an act of war†. Also, the writer states â€Å"Israel could not afford to let the Arabs strike first for she was too weak and too vulnerable†. In the second paragraph, that for the reasons of the Arabs, you are told, â€Å"The Arabs say that Israel should not have been in existence at all†, and that â€Å"Israel had to go to war to save its economy and to ward off political instability†. This all seems very diplomatic, but the first thing that struck me was that Israel had roughly three reasons put forward, as opposed to the Arabs two. The writer says that â€Å"it comes down to whether†¦Ã¢â‚¬  in the first paragraph, implying that you should draw your own opinion from the information that he has put forward in his book. I believe that he is trying to sway your opinion to the side of the Israelis by means of clever wording.

Essay --

The background of this case is that a teacher named Kristja J. Falvo had her children attend a school called Owasso Independent School District located in Tulsa Oklahoma. Her children told her that they were too embarrassed to show their work because of a grading practice in their school. What they would do is they would give someone else their homework or test and they would grade each others work and then give them a grade on it. Then after that they would have to call out their grade or say them out loud to the class our say it privately to the teacher. The problem that the Mother was having was that even though they could say their grade bad or good another student from their class would know their grade. So Mrs. Falvo filed a lawsuit on the school for the right of privacy. The lawsuit was filed because Mrs. Falvo felt that her children were embarrassed to show their work to other students even if it was a bad grade that the kids didn't feel confident about. She was afraid that her kids didn't feel as devoted to do their homework, because they knew that the next school day they would have to show how good they did and they don't want that. The other thing is that the kids are also being pressured to do really good on their homework, because the next morning they don't want to feel embarrassed on how bad they did. Her children actually told her that they were embarrassed to show their work. This peer review could lead to very bad problems. It could lead to low self esteem and grow up to someone who is always second guessing themselves. It was a good idea that she filed that lawsuit because the homework checked process was against the child's right to privacy. The argument were that the school district thought that the indi... ...gs and medical instruments for the purpose of doing conception. Anyone who caught doing this is fine or brought to jail or both. Griswold and her Doctor were both fined hundred dollars. So both of them appealed. The ruling was that privacy inside a marriage is off limit to the government. I think this would go under Federal power. I think this because it has to do with the laws. The supreme gathered up to discuss about this case with a leader and they decided on a ruling together. This does infact impact my friends and families. A lot of my friend go to school and my sibling also go to school. Actually we do this same thing in chemistry class except we don’t have any problem about it at least I hope we don’t. Even though this exact problem is not infecting me I still know a lot of people that like to keep their grade hidden and not share them with other people.

Learning Diary Essay

All students from IBS, IT and tourism sat together in the conference room. We were introduced to many friendly tutors and teachers. I was very interested in the speech of Mr Juola- Head of the Rantaviitikka campus. We were also introduced a very useful book called study guide. After finished the class, I decided to created my own library card with my friend’s help. * 4th September 2012: The first look about IBS programme. At 10. 00 am, IBS coordinator-Mrs Anzelika Krastina introduced to IBS12 group of 40 international students. I was satisfied with this introduction because I knew about: study methods, course contents and project work and practical training issues. After lunch, we were introduced to IT & ICT course by Mrs Tuijja Kuisma. We also met IBS11 and IBS10 groups. I had many useful advices from Mrs Tuijja Kuisma. * 5th September 2012: Planning International evening project. From 8. 30-10. 00, we got together with friends from IT and Tourism. They makes me feel like there are no distance between different degree programmes. After that, we continued to discuss about the International evening project. Because we have 40 international students from about 8 different countries so our coordinator decided to divide the class into 4 groups. As a result, we will 4 performances from IBS12 group. After lunch, we came to room c117 to learn about education principles and policies. We were also presented a new study method called: problems based learning. this was a completely new experience for me and I was really excited to start with this study method. * 6th September 2012: A memorable day. We started later than the other days. At 11. 30 am, we gathered at Borealis auditorium to listen to Ms Ritva Ala-Louko, Head of language center talk about the topic called â€Å" Adapting to a new culture †. all the information given was very worthwhile for me because I knew how to adapt to new life, new culture without the help of family. At 13. 00 pm, the new students walked together to the University of Lapland for the information session â€Å"Getting to know Rovaniemi†. The session began with a video about Rovaniemi. It was so funny because I had seen this video when I searched information about Rovaniemi. After that, the presentation was about Finnish Law and Regulations; Permits and Licenses for Foreigners; Rovaniemi Congregation; sport services at RAMK and ULapland. The information provided me a general look about Rovaniemi. * 7th September 2012: Opening ceremony. That day, I got up early to prepare for the opening ceremony. Exactly, all first-year student officially entered the school gates and we were welcome by Mr Martti Lampela-the principal of Rovaniemi University of Applied Sciences. We listened his speech and also received some cute gifts from Ramk’s tutors. When the speech finished, the new academic year officially began. After lunch, the student tutors leaded students to the river bank by Pohjanhovi, the venue of traditional Rovaniemi UAS vs University of Lapland rowing test. Although, the RAMK’s team won easily but we had happy moments together. The day culminated in a party at night club Doris. Unfortunately, I was under 18 years old at that time so I could not participate in the party. * 10th september 2012: the first day of academic year 2012-2013. The first class was introduction to IT. Mrs Tuija Kuisma taught us to use the basic computer system in school and some useful tools like: optima, win-hawille as well. I had to keep them in mind because they would related to my future study. After lunch, i continued with †Cross-cultural Man† class. I was confused because Krastina’s voice was quite small. Unfortunately, i sat at the back of class. but i could understand the main point of the lesson. Mrs Krastina also so gave us the information about the Problem Based Learning method. At the end of the day, we did not have to have an English test because it was cancelled. * 11th september 2012: The orientation course and Cross-cultural Man class. The orientation course was about information literacy. We learned to use the e-library to search books, information, ect. We were given a form to fill in to create a library card but i already had this card. The important of the class was to provide students with the knowledge of e-library. After lunch, we studied about teamwork and PBL method in Cross-cultural Man class. in my group, we had to solve a real problem in teamwork. After discusing, we came up with the best solution and we had to write an essay about the importance of teamwork in school for the learning task. In my country, i did not have enough opportunities to work in a team so when i worked in a group i was not confident. I will improve myself in the near future. * 12th september 2012: Knowledge about reference and academic writing. Mrs Johanna made me feel very comfortable because of her enthusiam. She was always ready to help students to finish the reference. In the future, i will write many essays so i have to remind myself to study hard all the time. Pham Xuan Tung.

Outline and Evaluate Infradian Rhythms Including Research Essay

Infradian rhythms are biological rhythms that last for more than 24 hours. They are controlled by the hypothalamus, an endogenous pacemaker which requires input from exogenous zeitgebers so the rhythm can run correctly. An example of an infradian rhythms is the mentstrual cycle. This is controlled by the pituary gland which is an endogenous pacemaker. The pituary gland releases hormones which cause an egg in the ovaries to ripen and produce oestrogen. Whilst it is known to be biological due to its universal nature, there are large individual differences such as the length of time and the age the menstrual cycle begins. Reinberg conducted research into infradian rhythms where a woman spent 3 months in a cave only with dim lighting. Her sleep/wake cycle slightly lengthened whereas her menstrual cycle shortened suggesting that light affects menstrual cycles. However, this is a case study which means it lacks generalisability even more so as there are large individual differences with the menstrual cycle. On the other hand, Russell et al applied female donor’s underarm sweat which has been combined with alcohol to the upper lips of female participants. The menstrual cycles of the participants began to synchronises therefore suggesting that pheromones act as exogenous zeitgebers. Pheromones are biological substances similar to hormones but are secreted into the air and then transmitted to other animals of the same species, or in this case humans, before being absorbed into their bloodstream. However, despite the sample size being small it was a well controlled single blind study meaning that the participants didn’t know what experimental group they were in. McClinock and Stern provided further support for the study when they found pheromones in donor’s sweat affected the recipient’s menstrual cycles, therefore suggesting that exogenous zeitgebers have a regulating effect. It may be the cases the synchronised periods have an evolutionary significance because it allows women that are living together to synchronise pregnancies so they can share child care. However, it has also been found that women working in proximity to men have shorter cycles; an evolutionary advantage which provides more opportunity for pregnancy. Likewise, the purpose of a menstrual cycle is to conserve energy. Therefore it is better to restrict periods of fertility, highlighting the need for endogenous control. On the other hand there are ‘side effects’ of the menstrual cycle such as pre menstrual tension which has been associate with increased aggression. Lewis found that pre menstrual tensions has been cited as a defence in criminal trials. A second infradian rhythm is Seasonal Affective Disorder (SAD). It involves having severe depression in the winter months. Levels of melatonin are higher in winter and may lead to increased depression and sleepiness. However, it has led to a treatment called phototherapy which is being exposed to bright lights for several hours a day in order to reduced the effect of too much serotonin. This in turn, lowers melatonin levels. Hamster research again has provided us with more knowledge of infradian rhythms. Male hamsters have annual rhythms of testosterone secretion based on the amount of light that occurs each day. As the breeding season begins, the days lengthen thus when it ends, they shorten. Rusak and Zucker made lesions in the SCN, the Suprachiasmatic Nucleus, part of the hypothalamus in a hamster which destroyed their annual breeding cycles and led to male hamsters secreting testosterone all year. The 24 hour clock that daily light levels were measured against was destroyed so the seasons couldn’t be determined. Carlson found that if it was less than 12 hours of light for hamsters, it is winter where if it more than 12 hours it is summer, and therefore the breeding season. However, the research was invasive and led to brain damage, meaning it caused harm to the hamster. As it has also been conducted on animals, it cannot be generalised because it lacks population validity despite being informative. Circa-annual rhythms which means they happen once a year are also examples of infradian rhythms. When studying migration, Gwinner kept wild birds in cages exposing them to 12 hours of light and 12 hours of darkness. This lack of external stimuli led to migratory restlessness thus suggesting there is endogenous control. However, it may be triggered by the availability of food, an exogenous cue. As the wild birds were kept in cages, they also experienced harm because they were not in their natural setting either. Pengelly and Fisher conducted research into hibernation. Similar to Gwinner, they controlled squirrels artificially by exposing them to light 12 hours a day followed by 12 hours of darkness, keeping the temperature at 0 degrees. The squirrels hibernated from October to April. However, as the animals were not in their natural habitat, the studies lacked ecological validity because it was artificial. The research findings are positive as they have established the existence of endogenous pacemakers regulated by exogenous zeitgebers. However, to an extent the findings are deterministic because we need exogenous zeitebers to help our endogenous pacemakers as it has been found in studies by Siffre and Aschoff and Weber that without external cues, our biological rhythms are slower than what they need to be. In addition, some of the research is idiographic because they are small samples and or case studies meaning they lack population validity.

Change Detection Techniques of Remote Sensing Imageries

Change Detection Techniques of Remote Sensing Imageries 1.1 Introduction Over the past years, academics have suggested enormous numbers of change detection techniques of remote sensing imageries and classified them from a different point of views [ 28 ]. These techniques depend on the assumption of spatial independence among pixels. This assumption is valid only for low, medium and high-resolution images but insufficient for VHR images [ 1 ]. This chapter presents the concept, implementation, and assessment of seven change detection techniques using low, medium and high-resolution ORSI. The rest of this chapter is organized into eight sections. Section 3.2 presents a brief description of the study areas. Section 3.3 describes the dataset characteristics of the study areas (Sharm El-Sheikh city and Mahalla al-kubra city – Egypt). Section 3.4 presents the pre-processing performed on the image dataset before change detection process. Section 3.5 provides the accuracy assessment measures used for evaluation of the change detectio n process. Section 3.6 illustrates the concepts of the selected seven change detection techniques . These techniques are post-classification, direct multi-date classification (DMDC), image differencing (ID), image rationing (IR), image symmetric relative difference (ISRD), change vector analysis (CVA), and principal component differencing (PCD). Section 3.7 presents the experimental work. It explains the Implementation and accuracy assessment of applying the selected change detection techniques on an image dataset of Sharm El-Sheikh city- Egypt. Section 3.8 presents the application of â€Å"post-classification† change detection technique on an image dataset of El-Mahalla El-kubra City-Egypt to detect the urban expansion over the agricultural area through the period from 2010 to 2015. Finally, section 3.9 gives the chapter summary. 1.2 The study areas In this chapter, two study areas are selected for the application of the selected change detection techniques. The first area is a part of Sharm el-Sheikh city. It is located on the southern landfill of the Sinai Peninsula, in the South Sinai Governorate, Egypt, on the coastal bar along the Red Sea as shown in figure (3.1). Its population is approximately 73,000 as of 2015 [ 62 ]. Sharm El Sheikh is the administrative hub of Egypt’s South Sinai Governorate, which includes the smaller coastal towns of Dahab and Nuweiba as well as the mountainous interior, St. Catherine and Mount Sinai. Today the city is a holiday resort and significant center for tourism in Egypt. The selected area is about 12.5 Km 2 . The second study area is a village belongs to El Mahalla El Kubra city. El Mahalla El Kubra is a large industrial and agricultural city in Egypt, located in the middle of the Nile Delta on the western bank of the Damietta Branch tributary, as shown in figure (3.2). The city is known for its textile industry. It is the largest city of the Gharbia Governorate and the second largest in the Nile Delta [ 63 ]. The selected area is about 38 Km 2 . 1.3 Images datasets of the study areas In this chapter, two datasets are used. The first dataset consists of two images of Sham el-Sheikh city acquired by Landsat 7 at 2000 and 2010 respectively as shown in figure (3.3). Area of the image lies between Lat. 28 0 37.0091 N, Lon. 34 17 56.3381 E and Lat.   27 57 20.8804 N, Lon. 34 24 43.6080 E. Table (3.1) summarizes the characteristic of these images. Table (3.1 )   Characteristic of Sham el-Sheikh dataset No Spatial resolution Radiometric resolution Number of bands Acquisition date Size [pixels] Area [km 2 ] Width Height 1 30 m 8 bits 3 2000 382 364 12.5143 2 30 m 8 bits 3 2010 382 364 12.5143 (a) (b) Fig (3.3 ) Dataset of Sharm el-Sheikh city- Egypt acquired by Landsat 7 at (a) image acquired at 2000 and the (b) image acquired at 2010. Figure (3.4) illustrates the second dataset of a village belongs to EL Mahalla al-Kubra city in Egypt. It consists of two images acquired in 2010 and 2015. It is taken by El-Shayal Smart web online Software that could acquire Satellite images from Google Earth. The image area lies between Lat. 30 57 46.9032 N, Lon. 31 14 35.4776E and Lat. 30 54 47.00 N, Lon. 31 18 19.98. Table (3.2) summarizes the characteristic of this dataset. (a) (b) Fig ( 3.4 ) Dataset of EL mahalla al-kubra city- Egypt ( Google Earth) (a) image acquired at 2010 and (b) image acquired at 2015. Table (3.2 )   Characteristic of EL mahalla al-kubra dataset No Spatial resolution Radiometric resolution Number of bands Acquisition date Size [pixels] Area [km 2 ] Width Height 1 6 m 8 bits 3 2010 1056 1007 38.2821 2 6 m 8 bits 3 2015 1056 1007 38.2821 1.4 Image Pre-processing for Change Detection Before change detection process, it is usually necessary to carry out the radiometric correction and image registration for the dataset used [ 64 ].   In sections 3.4.1and 3.4.2, the concept of radiometric and image registration are described. The execution of preprocessing on the dataset used is given in section 3.7.2. 1.4.1 Radiometric correction Radiometric conditions are influenced by many factors such as different imaging seasons or dates, different solar altitudes, different view angles, different meteorologic conditions and different cover areas of cloud, rain or snow etc. It may affect the accuracy of most change detection techniques. Radiometric correction is performed to remove or reduce the inconsistency between the values surveyed by sensors and the spe ctral reflectivity and spectral radiation brightness of the objects, which encompasses absolute radiometric correction and relative radiometric correction [ 26 ]. Absolute radiometric correction It mainly rectifies the radiation distortion that is irrelevant to the radiation features of the object surface and is caused by the state of sensors, solar illumination, and dispersion and absorption of atmospheric etc. The typical methods mainly consist of adjusting the radiation value to the standard value with the transmission code of atmospheric radiation, adjusting the radiation value to the standard value with spectral curves in the lab, adjusting the radiation value to the standard value with dark object and transmission code of radiation, rectifying the scene by removing the dark objects and so on. Due to the fact that it is expensive and impractical to survey the atmospheric parameter and ground objects of the current data, and almost impossible to survey that of the histor ical data, it is difficult to implement absolute radiometric correction in most situations in reality. Relative radiometric correction In a relative radiometric correction, an image is regarded as a reference image. Then adjust the radiation features of another image to make it match with the former one. Main methods consist of correction by histogram regularization and correction with fixed object. This kind of correction can remove or reduce the effects of atmosphere, sensor, and other noises. In addition, it has a simple algorithm. So it has been widely used. The radiation algorithms that are most frequently used at present in the preprocessing of change detection mainly consists of image regression method, pseudo-invariant features,   dark set and bright set normalization, no-change set radiometric normalization, histogram matching, second simulation of the satellite signal in the solar spectrum and so on. It should be pointed that radiometric correction isn’t n ecessary for all change detection methods. Although some scholars hold that radiometric corrections are necessary for multi-sensor land cover change analysis Leonardo studies at 2006 have shown that if the obtained spectral signal comes from the images to be classified, it is unnecessary to conduct atmospheric correction before the change detection of post-classification comparison. For those change detection algorithms based on feature, object comparison, radiometric correction is often unnecessary [ 64 ]. 1.4.2 Image registration Precise registration to the multi-temporal imageries is essential for numerous change detection techniques. The importance of precise spatial registration of multi-temporal imagery is understandable because generally spurious results of change detection will be formed if there is misregistration. If great registration accuracy isn’t available, a great deal of false change area in the scene will be caused by image displacement. It is commonly approved that the geometrical registration accuracy of the sub-pixel level is recognized. It can be seen that the geometrical registration accuracy of the sub-pixel level is necessary to change detection. However, it is doubtful whether this result is suitable for all registration data sources and all detected objects and if suitable how much it is. Another problem is whether this result has no influence on all change detection techniques and applications and if there is any influence how much it is. These Problems are worth to be studied further. On the other hand, it is difficult to implement high accuracy registration between multi-temporal especially multi-sensor remote sensing images due to many factors, such as imaging models, imaging angles and conditions, curvature and rotation of the earth and so on. Especially in the mountainous region and urban area, general image registration methods are ineffective and orthorectification is needed. Although geometrical registration of h igh accuracy is necessary to techniques used for low, medium and high resolution (like image differencing techniques and post-classification), it is unnecessary for all change detection t. For the feature-based change detection methods like object-based change detection method, the so-called buffer detection procedure can be employed to associate the extracted objects or features and in this manner, the harsh prerequisite of perfect registration can be escaped [ 65 ]. However, these methods neglect the key problem of the distinction between radiometric and semantic changes. So, it does not address the problem of change detection from a general perspective. It just focuses on specific applications relevant to the end user [ 1 ]. 1.5 Accuracy Assessment used for Change Detection Process evaluation The accuracy of change detection depends on many factors, including precise geometric registration and calibration or normalization, availability and quality of ground reference data, t he complexity of landscape and environment, methods or algorithms used, the analyst’s skills and experience, and time and cost restrictions.   Authors in [ 66 ] summarized the main errors in change detection including errors in data (e.g. image resolution, accuracy of location and image quality), errors caused by pre-processing (the accuracy of geometric correction and radiometric correction), errors caused by change detection methods and processes (e.g. classification and data extraction error), errors in field survey (e.g. accuracy of ground reference) and errors caused by post-processing. Accuracy assessment techniques in change detection originate from those of remote sensing images classification. It is natural to extend the accuracy assessment techniques for processing single time image to that of bi-temporal or multi-temporal images. Among various assessment techniques, the most efficient and widely-used is the error matrix [ 26 ]. It describes the comparison or cr oss-tabulation of the classified land cover to the actual land cover revealed by the sample sites results in an error matrix as demonstrated in the table (3.3). It can be called a confusion matrix, contingency table [ 67 ], evaluation matrix [ 68 ] or misclassification matrix [ 69 ]. Different measures and statistics can be derived from the values in an error matrix. These measures are used to evaluate the change detection process. These measures are overall accuracy, procedures accuracy and user accuracy [ 70 ]. Overall accuracy of the change map It presents the ratio of the total number of correctly classified pixels to the total number of pixels in the matrix. This figure is normally expressed as a percentage. It can be expressed as follows: The overall accuracy =   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   (3.1) User’s accuracy (column accuracy) It is a measure of the reliability of change map generated fro m a CD process. It is a statistic that can tell the user of the map what percentage of a class corresponds to the ground-truthed class. It is calculated by dividing the number of correct pixels for a class by the total pixels assigned to that class. The user accuracy =   Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   (3.2) Producer’s accuracy (raw accuracy) It is a measure of the accuracy of a particular classification scheme. It shows what percentage of a particular ground class was correctly classified. It is calculated by dividing the number of correct pixels for a class by the actual number of ground truth pixels for that class. The procedure accuracy =   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   (3.3) Table ( 3 . 3 ) Change error matrix or confusion matrix. Classified land cover Actual land cover Class1 = change Class2 = no change Class1 = change Correct False Class2 = no change False Correct 1.6 Concepts of the selected change detection techniques Seven LULC change detection techniques are selected to be implemented on our dataset. These techniques are post-classification, direct multi-date classification ( DMDC ), image differencing (ID), image rationing (IR), image symmetric relative difference (ISRD), change vector analysis (CVA), and principal component differencing (PCD). Image differencing Itis based on the subtraction of two spatially registered imageries, pixel by pixel, as follows: ID =X i (t 2 ) – X i (t 1 )  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   (3.4) Where: X represents the multispectral images with I (number of bands) acquired at two different times t 1 and t 2 . The pixel s of changed area are predictable to be scattered in the two ends of the histogram of the resulting image (change map), and the no changed area is grouped around zero as shown in figure (3.5). This simple manner easily infers the resulting image; conversely, it is vital to properly describe the thresholds to perceive the change from non-change regions [ 71 ] . Image Rationing It is similar to image differencing method. The only difference between them is the replacement of the differencing images by rationed images [ 71 ].